BASIC
COUNTRY INFORMATION
Population,
July 2000 estimate: 4,151,264
Ethnic
Groups:� 77% Chinese, 14% Malay, 7.6% Indian, 1.4% other.
Religion:
Buddhist (Chinese), Muslim (Malays), Christian, Hindu, Sikh,
Taoist, Confucianist
GDP,
per capita, purchasing power parity - $27,800 (1999 est.)
GDP
real growth rate, 1999 estimate: 5.5%
Unemployment
rate, 1999 estimate: 3.2%
Major
industries: electronics, financial services, oil drilling
equipment, petroleum refining, rubber processing and rubber
products, processed food and beverages
Population
Growth Rate, 2000 estimate: 3.54%
Fertility
Rate, 2000 estimate: 1.16 children born/woman
Maternal
Mortality Rate, 2000 estimate: 10 deaths per 100,000 live
births*
Infant
Mortality Rate: 4 deaths per 1,000 live births
Life
expectancy at Birth, 2000: Total - 80.05 years
�����������������������
����������� ����������� Male - 77.1 years
�����������������������
����������� ����������� Female - 83.23 years
Literacy,
1995 estimate: Total - 91.1%
�����������������������
�������������Female - 86.3%
�����������������������
�������������Male - 95.9%
Education:
Years compulsory - none now, six beginning 2003. Attendance
- 93%.
Sources: The World Factbook 2000
[1] , *IPPF [2]
Recent
Political and Economic History
Singapore has a history of� Japanese and
British control, finally becoming self-governing in 1959.
In 1963, it joined the newly-formed Malaysia.� After a period
of friction between Singapore and the central government in
Kuala Lumpur, Singapore separated from Malaysia on August
9, 1965, and became an independent republic. The amended Constitution
of 1965 defined Singapore as a republic with a parliamentary
system of government. Constitutional changes in 1991 increased
the power and authority of the president, who now exercises
power over legislative appointments, government budgetary
affairs, and internal security matters.
Despite recent economic setbacks, lack of
resources and a small domestic market, a strategic geographic
location and prudent planning has helped Singapore achieve
remarkable prosperity. [3] � Per capita GDP is higher in Singapore
than in most European countries. Poverty and unemployment
levels are low.� Wealth is spread more evenly than in most
other countries. The poorest 5 percent of households have
about the same levels of ownership of homes, television sets,
refrigerators, telephones, washing machines and video recorders
as the national average.
[4]
The government has been led by the People�s
Action Party (PAP) since 1966.� In 1968, 1972, 1976, and 1980,
the PAP won all of the seats in parliament.� Workers' Party
Secretary General J.B. Jeyaretnam won a by-election in 1981
to become the first opposition party member of parliament
in 15 years.� The PAP won 81 of the 83 elected parliamentary
seats in the last general election in 1997. [5] � Because
a constitutional amendment guarantees opposition parties at
least three seats, the President appointed a member of the
Workers� Party to a �nonconstituency� seat with restricted
voting rights. [6]
The apparent popularity of the PAP has often
been attributed to the effective and thorough oppression of
political opposition.� According to one report, the PAP has
maintained its political dominance in part by developing genuine
voter support through� honest, effective administration and
its strong� record in bringing economic prosperity to the
country,� and in part by manipulating the electoral frame-work,
intimidating organized political opposition, and circumscribing
the bounds of legitimate political discourse and action.
Numerous opposition party members, including
J.B. Jeyaretnam, have been charged with defamation and fined
into bankruptcy.� Jeyaretnam will lose his seat in parliament
if he is unable to raise the funds to pay excessively high
fines imposed by the government-friendly judiciary.� The courts
consistently award in favor of government plaintiffs in cases
against opposition party members and government critics. [7]
The government also ensures its electoral
popularity by threatening voters.� For example, the Prime
Minister and other government officials warned voters in 1997
that precincts electing opposition candidates would be given
lowest priority in government plans to upgrade public housing
facilities. [8] �
The government defends its oppressive policies
in the name of �Asian values.�� It contends that economic
development must have precedence over civil and political
rights, such as freedom of speech and the right to vote in
free and fair elections. [9]
Freedom
of Expression and Human Rights
����� Media expression: The Committee To
Protect Journalists (CPJ) has reported several instances of
government intimidation against journalists from 1995 to 2001.�
The government owns or exercises influence over most of the
media in Singapore and most reporters exercise self-censorship
to avoid persecution. [10]
������������ Religious freedom: All religions
are subject to government scrutiny and a few are banned. [11]
����� Rights of Association and right to
organize: People wishing to speak to a group of more than
five must obtain police permission in the form of an entertainment
license.� Opposition party members routinely experience delays
when submitting applications to speak publicly. [12] �
����� Right to life: Singapore hangs more
people than any other country.� Amnesty International reports
that Singapore has averaged 40 hangings a year since 1994. [13]
Because executions are not publicized, that number
could be even higher. [14] Smuggling cannabis is punishable by
death. [15]
������������ Invasion of privacy:� The government
maintains the right to search, seizure, and surveillance,
sometimes (in cases of suspected national security threats)
without a warrant. [16] �
STATUS
OF WOMEN IN SINGAPORE UNDER SPECIFIC CEDAW ARTICLES:
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 1
DEFINITION
OF DISCRIMINATION
According to Article 12 of the Constitution
of Singapore, all persons are equal before the law and entitled
to the equal protection of the law. [17] The
Constitution contains no explicit provision defining discrimination
against women. [18] � The Ministry of Community Development
and Sports is the government body responsible for women�s
issues in Singapore. The Women�s Charter of 1961 was passed
to protect women�s rights in Singapore and to define equality
between wives and husbands (See discussion re: Article 16).�
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 2-5
OBLIGATIONS
TO ELIMINATE DISCRIMINATION; THE DEVELOPMENT AND ADVANCEMENT
OF WOMEN; EQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN; and SEX ROLES AND
STEREOTYPING
Though official laws and policies of Singapore
generally assume equality between men and women, traditions
and stereotypes that preserve gender inequalities persist.�
Government intimidation silences all Singaporeans.� Women
suffer disproportionately under an oppressive regime, because
they are often unable or unwilling to seek redress and legal
measures against the past and present discrimination women
face. In an article in the Singapore daily Straits Times,
the Ministry of Finance articulated a common perception that
contradicts the legal guarantee of equality:
We should be careful not to pursue doctrinaire�
symmetry in the roles of two sexes.� Many Western� countries
have, through unwise social and welfare� policies, unintentionally
but irreversibly undermined� the basic family unit of husband,
wife and children.� Their experience warns us of the dangers�
of even the most well-intentioned government intervention
to alter the natural balance and division of responsibility
between the sexes, which has evolved over many generations. [19]
Singapore has reserved to Article 2 of the
CEDAW Convention.� In 1997, the government of Sweden officially
objected to Singapore�s reservations, stating that they �raise
doubts as to the commitment of Singapore to the object and
purpose of the Convention.� [20]
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 6
EXPLOITATION
OF WOMEN
Three major laws govern trafficking and
prostitution in Singapore: the Women's Charter, the Children
and Young Person's Act, and the Penal Code.� These laws make
trafficking in women and children punishable by up to five
years' imprisonment, a $5,800 (SD10,000) fine, and caning. [21] � There is evidence that Singapore
is a destination for trafficking in women for the purpose
of prostitution, primarily from Thailand and Malaysia.� According
to the US State Department, police reportedly conduct monthly
raids in an effort to maintain some control over the situation. [22]
Human
Rights Watch (HRW) has named Singapore as a favorite pass-through
point for traffickers on their way to other countries, such
as Japan.� Though HRW does not specify the level of complicity
with which Singapore government officials should be charged,
government responsibility for trafficking crimes is clearly
implied.� �In some cases, these networks also rely on the
cooperation of government officials who prepare false documents
and/or turn a blind eye to violations, apparently in return
for bribes.� [23] � In some instances, escorts contact
agents in transiting countries, such as Singapore, to change
passports or to collect or deliver other women. [24] � This
is crucial to traffickers, because travelers from Singapore
do not need visas to enter Japan.� The HRW report includes
narratives of women who entered Japan with false Singapore
passports. [25]
Over half of the women HRW interviewed said agents
used false passports to secure their Japanese visas and entrance
into Japan.
The Singapore Government has attempted to
deal with negative social consequences of prostitution through
hard-line punishment, believing that prohibition is the best
deterrent.� According to one World Bank report,
Prohibition may discourage some people but
merely drives others �underground,� where it is harder for
public health programs to reach them, or it may simply �rearrange�
the problem. When Singapore attempted to eradicate prostitution
by closing �red-light� districts, brothels appeared in residential
areas. [26]
One local NGO offers sex workers counseling
services, but it is not empowered to provide protection. [27] � The government refers women to shelters
and services that advertise help for women in need, [28]
but it is unclear what services (if any) they
offer prostitutes and women who have been trafficked.�
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 7
POLITICAL
AND PUBLIC LIFE
Women are underrepresented in government.�
Women hold only four of the 83 elected parliamentary seats.
Women hold two of the nine N.M.P. (president-appointed)� seats,
but their voting and participation in parliamentary matters
is restricted. [29] � There are no female ministers, not
even in the Ministry of Community Development and Sports,
which presides over women�s affairs. [30] � While minority representation is
mandated �candidate slates in every multi-seat constituency
must have at least one minority representative � there is
no legal requirement to ensure women�s participation in government. [31]
In 1997, the Singapore government appointed
a delegation to report on progress made since the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (1992).�� The delegation
neglected to include information on the integration of women
into the development process.�� The information requested
by the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
included the status of Singapore�s compliance with CEDAW,
the current percentage of women decision makers and the implementation
of policies, mechanisms and strategies designed to promote
gender equality. [32]
The delegation also failed to provide information
on the government�s effort to strengthen the role of non-governmental�
organizations as partners for sustainable� development.� Many
women actively participate in NGO activities and the significance
awarded their activities is unclear.
There has been a marked hesitance by Singapore
officials to support international instruments that encourage
institutional transparency. Singapore has not ratified ICCPR,
CESCR, CERD and many ILO and other multilateral treaties,
such as the Mine Ban Treaty. [33] �The government rarely allows
human rights monitors to visit the country and forbids them
from visiting prisons. [34] � Amnesty
International observers were thoroughly criticized by the
government in the Singapore press after their visits in 1997
and 1999 to monitor proceedings against political opposition
figures. [35] � The belated initial report to CEDAW,
submitted in 1999, is the first and only report Singapore
has prepared for a UN treaty body. [36]
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 9
NATIONALITY
Though most laws and official policies prohibit
discrimination against women, a few still permit it.� One
example involves the policy of nationality transmission.�
Children born overseas to female citizens are not granted
citizenship automatically, while those of male citizens are. [37] � As
of 2 January 2000, Singapore women are permitted to sponsor
noncitizen husbands for citizenship. [38]
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 10
EDUCATION
Though primary and secondary school are
not yet compulsory, primary school attendance is nearly 100
percent for both boys and girls.� Six years of school will
be compulsory starting in 2002.� School is not free of charge
to Singapore children.� It is unclear if the impact is gendered,
especially as children progress beyond their early school
years.� Though literacy is quite high, women are disproportionately
illiterate.� According to the World Bank�s Genderstats, 12
percent of Singapore women and four percent of men are illiterate. [39]
� Wage gaps are commonly attributed to women�s
lower educational qualifications. [40]
It is much more clear that school costs
discriminate against single mothers and other female heads
of household.� Women in Singapore, especially women over the
age of 30, tend to be less educated than their male counterparts.�
Well-educated parents receive government subsidies of up to
$5,000 for their first three children.� According to one article,
�For the poorer and less educated, subsidies are far less
generous.� [41]
In 1999, the United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development� requested information about curricular
and educational program improvements to integrate �gender-relevant�
knowledge, but it has received no response from the government. [42]
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 11
EMPLOYMENT
Feminized
labor and the wage gap
Women are well represented in many professions,
but they also perform most of the� unskilled or semi-skilled
jobs, and their wages are usually lower than those of male
employees. [43] One
report considers the wage differentials in Singapore to be
greater than most East- and South Asian countries. [44]
� Although this gender wage difference has been
equalizing over the past decade, the gap still exists. According
to the Singapore NGO Association of Women for Action and Research
(AWARE), women earned 30 percent less than their male counterparts
in 1999.� One of AWARE�s slogans is �They�re now doing to
her salary what they did to her feet,� in reference to the
Chinese practice of footbinding. [45] In addition, female
workers are generally less educated than their male counterparts,
and they are regarded as more disciplined and more submissive
to authority. [46] � Promotion and
appointment methods are based on educational performance factors,
such as test performance. [47] � At
least one recent analysis found weak correlation between test
scores and job performance. [48] � This application of this educational
basis for promotions and appointments may be inherently discriminatory
against women.
Few women hold leadership positions in the
private sector. [49] � The
number of women in management positions has not risen proportionately
to women�s education levels.� A recent book, The Three
Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore investigates
this phenomenon.� It outlines obstacles in the form of social
gender stereotypes, intolerant corporate culture and other
psychological barriers (such as personality traits, locus
of control, motivation, fear of success) that partially explain
the discrepancy. [50]
Export
Processing Zones (EPZs)
In Singapore, as in many other Asian nations,
the employment generated by EPZs is estimated to represent
at least 20 percent of total wage employment in manufacturing. [51] Employment in EPZs can be short-term
and insecure. EPZs have frequently been criticized for providing
sub-standard working conditions and for vigorously discouraging
the creation of unions. It is estimated that 70 to 80 percent
of the total workforce in EPZs consists of women between the
ages of 16 and 25. This is partly a consequence of the types
of industries located in EPZs: female employment dominates
in footwear, garments and electronics production everywhere. [52]
Domestic
laborers -�maids� in Singapore
Foreign workers make up 30 percent of Singapore�s
workforce. [53] �� Over 100,000 migrant
women work as domestic laborers in Singapore. [54] � More
Singapore women have been able to seek employment outside
the home, because prosperity enables them to hire foreign
domestic helpers to take over household chores. [55]
� Migrant women who work in Singapore, some of
whom are illegal immigrants, face serious restrictions of
their human rights.� They are prohibited from marrying local
citizens and are not allowed to become pregnant.� They are
subjected to pregnancy tests every six months. [56] Migrant women who apply
to marry permanent residents of Singapore have their work
permits canceled. [57]
Female domestic workers receive low wages
and are required to work long hours�often six days a week
from early morning to late in the evening.� Their financial
dependence is often exacerbated by placement agency fees that
take women months to pay. [58] They depend on employers to provide
adequate room and board and are often required to sign a contract
to stay �on the premises� except on the day off or to perform
duties for her employer. [59]
� Such isolation policies have made migrant women
significantly more vulnerable to abuse.� A 1998 amendment
to the Penal Code has intensified punishments for sexual and
physical abuse of maids, and the media often publicize maid
abuse cases.� It is unclear, however, if anything has been
done to change the legal restrictions and contractual requirements
that keep maids �invisible�� to the public eye.
The
right to organize
Singapore has been identified as one of
the countries where significant restrictions, stringent registration
requirements, political interference and discrimination make
independent worker's organizations and union confederations
difficult to form. [60] � Singapore has not ratified the ILO
conventions on equal remuneration, labor unions, or non-discrimination. [61] � This poses a particular problem for
women who earn lower wages than their male counterparts and
are predominant in low-wage sectors of the economy.� The wage
gap is reportedly not as dramatic in higher-paying and more
prestigious jobs. [62]
Equal
benefits
Married women who work as civil service
employees are not qualified to receive health benefits for
their spouses and dependents.� Married male civil servants,
on the other hand, receive health benefits for both spouses
and dependents. [63]
Indigenous
women
There is some evidence of employment discrimination
against indigenous Malays in Singapore. [64] � Malay women face additional barriers
to equal employment opportunities and are underrepresented
in corporate management positions. [65] � In 1999, Singapore
officials mandated an end to job advertisements that specify
ethnicity and gender requirements, but still allow restrictive
language that refers to �attributes relevant to a job.� [66] These guidelines are vague and prone
to abuse.
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 12
HEALTH
CARE AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS
Singapore�s health system is ranked as the
sixth-best in the world by the World Health Organization in
2000.� Women live on average over 80 years and maternal and
infant mortality are low. [67]
Family
planning
The� Singapore Planned Parenthood Association
(SPPA) is the only NGO in Singapore involved in family planning.�
It has no service delivery programs, but is active in sex
and reproductive health education and resource development. [68]
�� Myths and misconceptions abound in the area
of sexuality education, [69] which
affects attitudes toward women and held by women.� One source
reports, �Singapore gynecologists routinely report women coming
to them complaining of barrenness only to be told they are
virgins.� [70] �
Sex education
The SPPA seeks improvement in government-run
sex education programs in Singapore�s secondary schools, so
that the curriculum includes value-based components, not exclusively
biological instruction. [71] � Dana Lam, president of the
NGO AWARE, claimed that the government�s sex education program
sends sexist messages by prizing virginity in girls but not
in boys. The Times of India reported, �While many have
applauded the program, Lam objected to a section on the CD-ROM
which likened female virgins to magazines sealed in plastic
covers. She said the analogy was like �denouncing non-virgin
girls as secondhand goods.� [72] Other programs attempt to increase
men's commitment in all areas of sexual and reproductive and
sexual health care needs. [73]
� It is unclear what effect these programs have
had and whether the government has supported programs that
work to end gender-based discrimination in the area of reproductive
health.�
Women - the solution to the baby shortage?
Contraceptive services are readily available
to the entire population through services provided by the
Ministry of Health and by public and private doctors.� Women
are under pressure, though, to reverse the baby shortage that
one Member of Parliament called �collective suicide.� [74]
�� The Government is trying to persuade women to
help raise the population to 5.5 million by 2040. [75] � One Government official reportedly
encouraged women to be less demanding in choosing partners:
�We ask our women to play softer, to play a little dumb if
possible.� [76] � This is evidence of a cultural form
of discrimination that some have called an �Asian values�
smokescreen, privileging continued economic growth over the
rights of women. [77]
This effort is also highly class-specific.�
Educated women are offered significant incentives to have
three or more children. For example, �Graduate women with
more than three children can get priority placements in Singapore�s
better kindergartens and primary schools.� [78] � Poor and less-educated women do not
benefit from these incentives.� In fact, they have been offered
financial incentives to undergo sterilization in the past. [79] � One source reports that the government
will continue to discourage the uneducated from having children.�
Former prime minister Lee Kwan Yew reported that less-educated
women were having twice as many children as graduate women. [80]
CONVENTION
ARTICLE 16
MARRIAGE
AND FAMILY LAW
The
Women�s Charter and its Amendments
The Women�s Charter of 1961 provides the
legal basis for equality between husband and wife. According
to the Ministry for Development and Sports, the Charter:
����� makes polygamy illegal;
������������ recognizes the wife�s right
to a different domicile from� that of her husband;
����� gives equal rights and duties to both
husbands and wives in the management of the home and children;�
����� makes it obligatory for a husband
to maintain his wife and children during marriage and after
divorce;
����� entitles the divorced man or wife
to a share of matrimonial assets;��
����� enables a battered spouse to gain
protection from the perpetrator;�
������������ provides the punishment for
offenses against women and girls. [81]
The Women�s Charter (1996) Amendment Bill
was passed in Parliament in August of 1996, assented to by
the President on� September 27, 1996 and came into force on
May 1, 1997.� It provides for an even more equitable distribution
of matrimonial assets.� However, the government has not specified
how it enforces the clause giving husbands and wives equal
duties in managing home and children.� Women continue to bear
more responsibility for housework and child rearing, and in
cases where domestic laborers are not afforded, this has become
a double burden for working women.�
Muslim
marriage laws
Muslim women do not enjoy all of the rights
and protections of the Women's Charter.� Muslim marriage law
falls under the administration of the Muslim Law Act. Under
this act, the Shari'a court allows Muslim men to practice
polygamy. [82] � More ethnic Malay and Muslim women
are seeking divorce as they become more aware of their rights
and the stigma associated with divorce wanes, according to
Ismail Ibrahim, executive director of the Association of Muslim
Professionals (AMP). [83]
In 1999, though, the Agence France-Presse�
in Singapore reported �a rise in young Muslim couples under
the age of 21 being referred for counseling and marriage guidance,
and that nine out of 10 times, the girls were already pregnant
when they wed.� [84]
Divorce
rights
According to the US State Department, both
men and women have the right to unilateral divorce; however,
women face significant difficulties in initiating unilateral
divorce proceedings, which often prevents them from pursuing
proceedings. [85]
GENERAL
RECOMMENDATION # 19
VIOLENCE
AGAINST WOMEN
Violence against women persists.� The Penal
Code and the Women's Charter protect women against domestic
violence and sexual or physical harassment.� A 1997 amendment
to the Women's Charter Act broadened the definition of violence
to include intimidation, continual harassment, or restraint
against one's will. [86]
� The Penal Code prescribes mandatory caning and
a minimum imprisonment of 2 years for conviction on a charge
of "outraging modesty" that causes the victim fear
of death or injury. [87] The impact of new legislation on domestic
violence rates is not clear. Female foreign workers are particularly
vulnerable to mistreatment and abuse. It is also unclear whether
the government has supported educational and training programs
that focus on gender sensitivity.�
Traditional attitudes about women�s roles
are problematic.� According to a survey of the� general population
�when a wife appeared to violate the roles of �good mother�
and �loyal wife,� the number of respondents approving of the
use of force rose dramatically.� [88]
�Several organizations provide assistance
to abused women. AWARE offers counseling and legal advice.�
The Family Protection Unit documents physical and psychological
abuse,� and provides counseling and legal services to abused
women.� The Council of Women's Organizations runs a crisis
center for abused persons. [89] � The extent to which the government
supports these and other organizations financially is unknown.�
